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Photograph by Braun & Co., Wellcome Collection, CC BY 4.0 · Wellcome Collection (photograph by Braun & Co.), via Wikimedia Commons · CC BY 4.0
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Sources
- Gustave Eiffel
- Gustave Eiffel (Q20882)
- Swiss Confederation, Presence Switzerland, "Maurice Koechlin, the Swiss who designed the Eiffel Tower" -- official Swiss government cultural-affairs account of Koechlin and Emile Nouguier's original 1884 tower design, Eiffel's initial rejection of it on aesthetic grounds, the September 1884 joint patent filing, the December 1884 contract under which Eiffel bought sole patent ownership (1% of construction value to each engineer, ~50,000 francs total), and Koechlin succeeding Eiffel as company head in 1893. Fetched and read directly.
- American Society of Civil Engineers, Historic Civil Engineering Landmark record for the Eiffel Tower -- institutional engineering-history account of the Tower's construction (roughly 18,038 prefabricated iron components, workshop segments joined first by bolts then by ~2,500,000 field rivets, elevator cars engineered for the legs' changing angle from 54 to 78 degrees, 700 competing proposals), and a directly-quoted February 14, 1887 statement by Eiffel on merging engineering and aesthetics. Fetched and read directly.
- France Memoire (Institut de France), memorial page on the death of Gustave Eiffel -- institutional biographical account of his engineering career (the 1858 Bordeaux bridge project at age 27, his own metallic-construction company founded 1866, the Garabit Viaduct, the Statue of Liberty's internal structural framework), the Tower's construction, the Panama Canal scandal outcome (1893 conviction for 'abus de confiance' annulled by the Cour de Cassation for prescription/statute of limitations), and his post-1893 pivot into meteorological and aerodynamics research (wind-tunnel testing for aviation pioneers Louis Bleriot and the Wright brothers, the Smithsonian Institution's Langley Gold Medal at age 81). Fetched and read directly.
- Encyclopedie Universalis, biographical entry on Gustave Eiffel, section 'Le scandale de Panama' -- scholarly French reference-encyclopedia account independently corroborating the February 9, 1893 conviction (complicity in fraud and breach of trust), the prison sentence and fine, the June 15, 1893 Cour de Cassation reversal specifically on statute-of-limitations grounds (not vindication on the merits), his withdrawal from the construction industry in his sixties, and the redirection into aerodynamics/scientific research including the Wright brothers and Bleriot wind-tunnel work. Fetched and read directly.
- Gilles Wronecki, "Gustave Eiffel et le scandale du Panama", 19e Siecle (independent French 19th-century-history site) -- detailed, dated account of the December 10, 1887 lock-construction contract (103 million francs, an 18-million-franc payment to Eiffel described as made 'without any oversight' before he 'undertook no work whatsoever'), the scandal's public breaking on November 20, 1892 (Edouard Drumont's expose), the February 9, 1893 conviction and sentence, the June 15, 1893 annulment on statute-of-limitations grounds explicitly described as leaving Eiffel 'not exonerated', and contemporary criticism of him as the contract's sole clear financial beneficiary amid ruined small investors. Fetched and read directly; the specific payment-structure detail (18M francs 'without oversight') is single-sourced to this site and treated with corresponding caution in the rows below.